Thursday, May 30, 2013

Finally, a benefit for growing old



Malaria in Chimpanzees

Researchers of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology and the Robert Koch-Institute did a study on malaria and age distribution of a group of wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes).

As humans age, their protective immunity increases. With malaria, the prevalence in the human body decreases with age; along with morbidity and mortality.

The chimps involved in the study ranged in ages 3-47 years. Researchers analyzed faecal samples. They found that almost every animal was found positive at least once. During the entire study, this means that at least one animal of this group was infected at every point the entire study.

Gender was not a factor; however analyses showed malaria parasites were found most often in younger animals. This indicates the same trend of acquired immunity as in humans. It is difficult to conclude that malaria in young chimps causes high mortality, because their bodies are rarely accessible. The study can conclude that there is continuous exposure to these chimps, therefore development of a resistance to infection.

To read the complete study, see the article referenced below.

Reference:

H. M. De Nys, S. Calvignac-Spencer, U. Thiesen, C. Boesch, R. M. Wittig, R. Mundry, F. H. Leendertz. Age-related effects on malaria parasite infection in wild chimpanzees. Biology Letters, 2013; 9 (4): 20121160 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2012.1160

Thursday, May 23, 2013

Seeing REDD



What is REDD and why was it developed?

REDD (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation) is a new agenda of financial incentives to aide forest communities with stopping deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries. REDD is a United Nations collaborative program. Historical efforts for forest conservation have proven ineffective. This new approach provides a plan for financial compensation (paid for by governments and private organizations (NGOs) of industrialized countries) to those developing countries willing and able to reduce carbon emissions by halting deforestation (Parker, et al., 2009).

The main objective of the REDD program is to reduce carbon emissions (Parker, et al., 2009).

This forestry initiative aims to be the solution to rising carbon emissions around the world (The Red Desk, 2011) and places market values on carbon sequestration. REDD goes beyond deforestation and degradation with the REDD + program; placing emphasis on conservation, sustainable management and restoration of carbon stocks. REDD incorporates different initiatives being developed in various countries and organizations concerning global forest projects. This analytical framework guides forest communities and governments in making effective policy decisions for their specific districts to achieve these forest mitigation goals (Parker, et al., 2009).

REDD was developed because carbon emissions are continually rising around the world. Deforestation contributes 18% of the total carbon emissions and is the second largest contributor to global warming; emissions from power and utilities are the number one contributor (Parker, et al., 2009). The causes of deforestation are complicated (e.g. food, fuel, land conversion) and vary throughout the world. REDD is an attempt to build a basic framework for solving these forest issues, thereby benefiting human lives (Parker, et al., 2009).


Benefits & Limitations of REDD

In addition to the main benefits of the REDD initiative (i.e. reducing carbon emissions and lowering greenhouse gases), The REDD scheme can offer co benefits to ecosystems. One potential co benefit would be biodiversity conservation.

REDD was designed to save critical areas of tropical forests. These forests “harbor over half (51.1%) of the world’s 48,170 threatened species” (Paoli, et al., 2009, p.1). By saving these critical habitats, species will be saved. There are severe limitations for biodiversity conservation that can arise, if REDD strategies are narrow in scope. Merely focusing on carbon rich forest regions, can lead to added ecological pressures on carbon poor areas that also contain high biodiversity rates. Negative, unanticipated effects from these REDD programs may arise (Paoli, et al., 2009). Overall biodiversity loss may occur outside the protected REDD areas.

This negative effect on biodiversity can be illustrated by examining the REDD project in Indonesia. The current REDD project focuses mainly on Upland Forests, leaving lowland peat forest underrepresented in the plan (Kalaugher, 2009). The plan (financed by Bank of America, et al.) covers 7500 sq km of forest. This forest extends an additional 65,000 sq km and is “home to 92% of the remaining Sumatran orangutans” [Pongo abelii](Kalaugher, 2009, p.2).

These unprotected areas would face extensive habitat fragmentation and human conflicts, weakening the framework of the entire ecosystem. Project based REDD areas, if not expanded to include larger land corridors, will eventually end unsuccessfully. The result will be several small fragmented protected areas, falling short of the initial goal of these REDD programs (Kalaugher, 2009).

For more information got to the un-REDD website here.

References:

Kalaugher, Liz. 2009. REDD project unlikely to save forest in Indonesia. [Online]  Available at: http://environmentalresearchweb.org/cws/article/news/40574 .

Paoli, G. D., Wells, P.L., Meijaard, E., Struebig, M. J., Marshall, A. J., Obidzinski, K., Tan, A., Rafiastanto, A., Yaap, B., Silke, J.W., Ferry, H., Alexandra M., Perumal, B., Weilaard, N., and D’Arcy, L., 2009.   Biodiversity Conservation in the REDD. [Online] Available at: http://www.cbmjournal.com/content/5/1/7 .

Parker, C., Mitchell, A., Trivedi, M. and Mardas, N. , 2009. The Little Red Plus Book. Oxford, U.K. 
Global Canopy Programme. [Online] Available : http://www.globalcanopy.org/materials/little-redd-book   

Tuesday, May 7, 2013

Can giraffes swim?





Did you ever wonder if a giraffe can swim? I did after watching that animation! Now we have an answer. “Mathematics has proven that giraffes can swim - even though they wouldn't be very good at it and nobody has ever seen them do it” (Telegraph, 2010).

Two researchers decided to figure it out (Dr. Henderson & Dr. Nash). No, they did not throw a giraffe in to the pool. Dr Henderson had created a digital model of a giraffe, and had also tested the buoyancy of various computer generated models of animals in former studies. Their new study published in the Journal of Theoretical Biology, examines a digital giraffe in digital water.

“Calculations were made to discover rotation dynamics, flotation dynamics and the external surface area of both a giraffe and - for control purposes - a horse” (telegraph, 2010).

They found that a full sized adult giraffe will become buoyant in around 9 feet of water. They can wade across shallower waters with no problem. You can see a video of real giraffes wading in a river here.

The giraffe would float in awkward positions, due to its shape and long legs. It would float facing downwards. The neck movement of a giraffe is very important to locomotion, and being in the water would hinder this. So, even though they can float, it would be uncomfortable and a giraffe would not be a good swimmer like a horse. Larger animals have slower muscle contractions, so it would be difficult for the giraffe to move forward while swimming.

So what good did this study do? “While this research is unlikely to have many practical applications, the authors says it emphasizes the point that computer simulations of animals - rather than real animals - can sometimes be used to answer interesting questions” (Telegraph, 2010). You can read the full study from the link below.

References: 
  

Henderson, D., Naish, D., 2010. Predicting the buoyancy, equilibrium and potential swimming ability of giraffes by computational analysis. Journal of Theoretical Biology. 265 (2). Pp. 151-159. Online. Available through Science Direct. [Accessed on 5/7/2013].


Telegraph, 2010. Maths formula proves giraffes can swim. Online. Available here: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/howaboutthat/7793067/Maths-formula-proves-giraffes-can-swim.html


Wednesday, May 1, 2013

“Get out your seat and jump around”



Why do guppies jump?

The study of movement (kinematics) in fish has been an interest to researchers for years. Propulsion, buoyancy, physiology and adaptation have been well researched. According to Bierman, 2013, less is known about the jumping behavior of fish.

Jumping in fish has previously been linked to catching nonaquatic prey, predator avoidance and obstacle negotiation during migration. In Bierman’s study of the Trinidadian guppy (Poecilia reticulate), they propose the jumping behavior has evolved for another reason. 

“These fish will spontaneously jump out of the water without being stimulated by a startle stimulus, or areal prey items and are not under seasonal migration pressure”. The jumping begins with a backwards swim phase and includes no other external stimulation. Bierman hypothesizes that this jumping is deliberate and may be a strategy of dispersal. 

For a more in depth analysis of guppy jumping, please see the original article listed below.

Here is a video of a guppy jumping.

 

reference:

Soares, D. and Bierman, H., 2013. Ariel Jumping in the Trinidadian Guppy (Poecilia reticulate). PlosOne. 8(4). Open Access. Available here: http/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0061617
 
Image credit: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Guppy_coppia_gialla.jpg