Researchers of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary
Anthropology and the Robert Koch-Institute did a study on malaria and age
distribution of a group of wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes).
As humans age, their protective immunity increases. With
malaria, the prevalence in the human body decreases with age; along with
morbidity and mortality.
The chimps involved in the study ranged in ages 3-47 years. Researchers analyzed faecal samples. They found that almost every animal was found
positive at least once. During the entire study, this means that at least one
animal of this group was infected at every point the entire study.
Gender was not a factor; however analyses showed malaria
parasites were found most often in younger animals. This indicates the same
trend of acquired immunity as in humans. It is difficult to conclude that
malaria in young chimps causes high mortality, because their bodies are rarely
accessible. The study can conclude that there is continuous exposure to these
chimps, therefore development of a resistance to infection.
To read the complete study, see the article referenced
below.
Reference:
H. M. De Nys, S. Calvignac-Spencer, U. Thiesen, C. Boesch,
R. M. Wittig, R. Mundry, F. H. Leendertz. Age-related effects on malaria parasite
infection in wild chimpanzees. Biology Letters, 2013; 9 (4): 20121160 DOI:
10.1098/rsbl.2012.1160
REDD (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest
Degradation) is a new agenda of financial incentives to aide forest communities
with stopping deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries.
REDD is a United Nations collaborative program. Historical efforts for forest
conservation have proven ineffective. This new approach provides a plan for
financial compensation (paid for by governments and private organizations
(NGOs) of industrialized countries) to those developing countries willing and
able to reduce carbon emissions by halting deforestation (Parker, et al.,
2009).
The main objective of the REDD program is to reduce carbon
emissions (Parker, et al., 2009).
This forestry initiative aims to be the solution to rising
carbon emissions around the world (The Red Desk, 2011) and places market values
on carbon sequestration. REDD goes beyond deforestation and degradation with
the REDD + program; placing emphasis on conservation, sustainable management
and restoration of carbon stocks. REDD incorporates different initiatives being
developed in various countries and organizations concerning global forest
projects. This analytical framework guides forest communities and governments
in making effective policy decisions for their specific districts to achieve
these forest mitigation goals (Parker, et al., 2009).
REDD was developed because carbon emissions are continually
rising around the world. Deforestation contributes 18% of the total carbon
emissions and is the second largest contributor to global warming; emissions
from power and utilities are the number one contributor (Parker, et al., 2009).
The causes of deforestation are complicated (e.g. food, fuel, land conversion)
and vary throughout the world. REDD is an attempt to build a basic framework
for solving these forest issues, thereby benefiting human lives (Parker, et
al., 2009).
Benefits &
Limitations of REDD
In addition to the main benefits of the REDD initiative
(i.e. reducing carbon emissions and lowering greenhouse gases), The REDD scheme
can offer co benefits to ecosystems. One potential co benefit would be
biodiversity conservation.
REDD was designed to save critical areas of tropical
forests. These forests “harbor over half (51.1%) of the world’s 48,170
threatened species” (Paoli, et al., 2009, p.1). By saving these critical
habitats, species will be saved. There are severe limitations for biodiversity
conservation that can arise, if REDD strategies are narrow in scope. Merely
focusing on carbon rich forest regions, can lead to added ecological pressures
on carbon poor areas that also contain high biodiversity rates. Negative,
unanticipated effects from these REDD programs may arise (Paoli, et al., 2009).
Overall biodiversity loss may occur outside the protected REDD areas.
This negative effect on biodiversity can be illustrated by
examining the REDD project in Indonesia. The current REDD project focuses
mainly on Upland Forests, leaving lowland peat forest underrepresented in the
plan (Kalaugher, 2009). The plan (financed by Bank of America, et al.) covers
7500 sq km of forest. This forest extends an additional 65,000 sq km and is
“home to 92% of the remaining Sumatran orangutans” [Pongo abelii](Kalaugher,
2009, p.2).
These unprotected areas would face extensive habitat
fragmentation and human conflicts, weakening the framework of the entire
ecosystem. Project based REDD areas, if not expanded to include larger land
corridors, will eventually end unsuccessfully. The result will be several small
fragmented protected areas, falling short of the initial goal of these REDD
programs (Kalaugher, 2009).
Paoli, G. D., Wells, P.L., Meijaard, E., Struebig, M. J.,
Marshall, A. J., Obidzinski, K., Tan, A., Rafiastanto, A., Yaap, B., Silke,
J.W., Ferry, H., Alexandra M., Perumal, B., Weilaard, N., and D’Arcy, L.,
2009.Biodiversity Conservation in the
REDD. [Online] Available at: http://www.cbmjournal.com/content/5/1/7
.
Parker, C., Mitchell, A., Trivedi, M. and Mardas, N. , 2009.
The Little Red Plus Book. Oxford, U.K.
Did you ever wonder if a giraffe can swim? I did after
watching that animation! Now we have an answer. “Mathematics has proven that
giraffes can swim - even though they wouldn't be very good at it and nobody has
ever seen them do it” (Telegraph, 2010).
Two researchers decided to figure it out (Dr. Henderson
& Dr. Nash). No, they did not throw a giraffe in to the pool. Dr Henderson
had created a digital model of a giraffe, and had also tested the buoyancy of
various computer generated models of animals in former studies. Their new study
published in the Journal of Theoretical Biology, examines a digital giraffe in
digital water.
“Calculations were made to discover rotation dynamics,
flotation dynamics and the external surface area of both a giraffe and - for
control purposes - a horse” (telegraph, 2010).
They found that a full sized adult giraffe will become
buoyant in around 9 feet of water. They can wade across shallower waters with no
problem. You can see a video of real giraffes wading in a river here.
The giraffe would float in awkward positions, due to its shape
and long legs. It would float facing downwards. The neck movement of a giraffe
is very important to locomotion, and being in the water would hinder this. So, even
though they can float, it would be uncomfortable and a giraffe would not be a
good swimmer like a horse. Larger animals have slower muscle contractions, so
it would be difficult for the giraffe to move forward while swimming.
So what good did this study do? “While this research is
unlikely to have many practical applications, the authors says it emphasizes
the point that computer simulations of animals - rather than real animals - can
sometimes be used to answer interesting questions” (Telegraph, 2010). You can
read the full study from the link below.
References:
Henderson, D., Naish, D., 2010. Predicting the buoyancy,
equilibrium and potential swimming ability of giraffes by computational
analysis. Journal of Theoretical Biology. 265 (2). Pp. 151-159. Online.
Available through Science Direct. [Accessed on 5/7/2013].
The study of movement (kinematics) in fish has been an
interest to researchers for years. Propulsion, buoyancy, physiology and
adaptation have been well researched. According to Bierman, 2013, less is known
about the jumping behavior of fish.
Jumping in fish has previously been linked to catching nonaquatic
prey, predator avoidance and obstacle negotiation during migration. In Bierman’s
study of the Trinidadian guppy (Poecilia reticulate), they propose the jumping
behavior has evolved for another reason.
“These fish will spontaneously jump out of the water without
being stimulated by a startle stimulus, or areal prey items and are not under
seasonal migration pressure”. The jumping begins with a backwards swim phase
and includes no other external stimulation. Bierman hypothesizes that this
jumping is deliberate and may be a strategy of dispersal.
For a more in depth analysis of guppy jumping, please see
the original article listed below.
